Mindful

I of the Vortex – Rodolfo R. Llinás

Review

“mindness state” – evolved to allow predictive interactions between mobile creatures and their environment.

Self is the centralization of prediction

Like cicadas chirping in unison, a group of neurons oscillating in phase can resonate with a distant group of neurons.

the internal state that we call the mind is guided by the senses, it is also generated by the oscillations within the brain. Thus, in a certain sense, one could say that reality is not all “out there,” but is a kind of virtual reality.

1. Setting Mind to Mind

Mindness, Global Function Brain States, and Sensorimotor Images

demarcating/clarifying definitions of the mind or “mindness state” – class of all functional brain states in which sensorimotor images, including self-awareness, are generated.

sensorimotor image – the conjunction or binding of all relevant sensory input to produce a discreet functional state that ultimately may
result in action. it occurs within the context of what the animal is presently doing

context – content in the generation of sensorimotor images and premotor formulation.

ch2. Prediction Is the Ultimate Function of the Brain

Why Must the Brain Predict?

p22. 이책의 처음에 언급 했던 것처럼 마음-mindness state-은 마음에 외부 실제 상황을 표상화하는 것과는 관계없이 살아있는 유기체와 그 환경과의 상호 작용이 제대로 작동하도록 유도하는 것을 목적으로 진화 되어 왔다. 이런 목적을 성공적으로 달성하기 위하여 신경구조(moving system)는 이런 예측 수행 메커니즘을 더욱더 강화하여 내재화하는 형태로 진화 하였다. 또한 우리는 일관된 형태의 예측 즉 머리와 꼬리가 일관되게 작동하도록 유기체 내에서 일어나게하기 위해서는 한 상황에 오직 하나의 예측기관만이 작동해야 된다는 것을 가정할수있다. 즉 예측 기능은 분산되지않고 중앙 집중형이 되어야 한다.

Prediction and the Origin of “Self”

비록 이런 예측기능이 뇌안에서 작동하지만 뇌의 특정 영역에서 작동하는것은 아니다. 그보다는 이런 예측 기능들이 함께 단일한 구조안으로 수렴되어져야 한다. 그렇지 않는다면 뇌의 분산 구조로 인하여 뇌의 각 영역들은 서로 다른 예측을하게 될 것이다. 그렇다면 무엇이 이런 기능들이 함께 작동하도록 만드는 것일까 ? 이런 예측 기능의 실제적 결과는 무엇일까 ? 나는 답이 자아-self라고 불리우는 것에 있으리라고 생각한다. 자아는 예측의 중앙 집중 움직임이다. 자아는 의식에 속한 한 부분이 아니라 의식 자체를 인지하는 자각 자체이다. 이런 관점에 따르면 자아는 그 자신의 존재를 인지-의식하지 않고도 존재 할 수있다. 비록 우리가 스스로를 인지하는 개체라고 하지만 이런 자기인지는 연속성을 갖지는 않는다. 예를 들어 급박한 상황 상어에게 쫗긴다고 할때 상어로부터 벗어나기위해 땅에 도달하기위해 헤엄치는 것이외의 어떤것도 즉 자신에 대해 아무생각도 할수없을 것이다. 무사히 도망친뒤 비로서 자신에 대해 생각할 수 있다. 즉 도망치는 동안에 자기 인지는 단절되어있는 것이다. 자기인식은 뒷장에서 다루겠지만 여기서는 자아에 대한 관점을 갖기 원한다.
즉 자아라는 실체가 예측을 수행하도록 만드는 것이 바로 뇌가 특정한 마음mind state을 만드는 것으로 이해 될수있다.

4번째시간: 인지 심리
임혁진

Cognition – Memory, Language, Thinking, Problem Solving and Creativity

Memory

I. The Phenomenon of Memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
learning – memory – knowing

A. Memory Loss and Memory Feats
– On average people can remember a strand of 7 items
- Flashbulb memory – a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
- Sometimes our memories prove to be wrong

B. Information Processing- (Three-Stage processing Model)
- To remember any event requires that we get information into our brain (encoding), retain that information (storage), and later get it back out (retrieval).
- Compared to a computer, our memories are less literal and more fragile than a computer’s. Computers process information fast and sequentially, our brain’s is slower but does many things at once- in parallel.
- Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin’s three-stage processing model of memory (1968) suggests that we
1. record to-be-remembered information as a sensory memory- the immediate initial recording of sensory information in the memory state
2. process a short term memory- activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
3. encode it for long-term memory- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

- We cannot focus on everything at once. We must focus our attention on certain incoming stimuli- often novel or important stimuli.
- These stimuli rapidly decay unless used or rehearsed.

1. Memory Stores: Sensory Memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2. Processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

II. Encoding – Getting information In

A. How we encode

B. What we encode- We process information in three key ways- by encoding its meaning, by visualizing it, and by mentally organizing it

III. Storage – Retaining Information

A. Sensory Memory (Sperling’s research)

B. Working/Short-term Memory

C. Long term Memory

D. Storing Memories in the Brain

E. Brain & Memory

- A memory-to-be enters the cortex through the senses, then winds its way into the brain’s depths.
- The Hippocampus- a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

* Scans of the brain reveal that new explicit memories of names, images, and events are laid down via the hippocampus (part of the limbic system)
* The hippocampus lights up on a PET scan when people recall words
* We have two hippocampuses… damage to the left have trouble remembering verbal information, but they have no trouble recalling visual designs and locations. Damage to the right the problem is reversed. – anterograde amnesia
* The hippocampus seems to act as a convergence zone where the brain registers and temporarily stores the elements of a remembered episode- the smells, feels, sounds, and place.
* Sometimes prolonged stress can corrode neural connections and shrink the brain area (hippocampus) that is vital for laying down memories. When sudden stress hormones are flowing, older memories may be blocked. (Minds that go blank while speaking in public )
* We shift different information to different regions
* Calling up a telephone number and holding it in working memory activates a region of the left frontal cortex; recalling a party scene would more likely activate a region of the right hemisphere.
* Our memories are not in one place, many brain regions are active as we encode, store, and retrieve different kinds of information.

- The Cerebellum- Researchers (in the rabbit study of how the rabbit’s brain learns to associate a tone with a puff of air in the eye) traced the pathway connecting the brain’s reception of the tone with the blink response. They discovered that it runs to the brainstem through a part of the cerebellum (at the back of the head) and that if they cut this pathway the learned response would be lost.
- The Amygdala, which possesses emotion, boosts activity in the brain’s memory-forming… Arousal sears events onto the brain. Weaker emotion means weaker memories.
- The search for the physical basis of memory has recently focused on the synapses and their neurotransmitters; on the long-term potentiation of brain circuits, such as those running through the hippocampus, and on the effects of stress hormones on memory. Studies of people with brain damage reveal that we have two types of memory- explicit (declarative) memories processed by the hippocampus and implicit (non-declarative;procedural memory) memories processed by the cerebellum and the amygdala.

IV. Retrieval – Getting Information Out

V. Forgetting

VII. Network Models of Semantic Memory

A. Hierarchical-Network Model (Collins & Quillian)

B. Spreading Activation Models (Collins & Loftus)

C. Propositional Network Models (John Anderson)

Language

- language is intimately connected to cognition
- how language works?
- how we acquire it?

I Elements of Language

II Language Acquisition

III Language and Cognition

Thinking and Creativity

A. Describing Thought

B. Problem Solving

C. Creativity

(Behavioral Perspective)

학습 이란 ? a stable change within an organism caused by an experience or set of experiences

A. Introduction

1. Watson (early 1900s)
-founder of behaviorism

2. Philosophy
a. study behaviors: observable
b. mental processes exist, but can’t be studied
c. describe learning in stimulus – response terms

d. association : 근접성, 빈도, 감정강도

B. Classical Conditioning : (무의식적인) 예측 반응 조건화

0. an anticipatory biological response :

– Classical Conditioning은 생명체가 생존에 중요한 event가 일어날때 일어 나야되는 반응을 적은 신경만을 갖고도 처리할 수있게 하기 위한 자동 예측 반응이다. – 반사행동

– Classical conditioning comes down squarely on the “parallel, emotional, heart, intuitive, unconscious” side.

– ex : an unpleasant emotional reaction

1. Reflexes
-simple, relatively automatic stimulus-response sequence
-must be mediated by the nervous system

2. Pavlov (Unconditioned Reflexes -learning-> conditional reflexes)
a. physiologist studying digestion reflexes using dogs
b. found that dogs began to salivate before food was placed in mouths
c. varied conditions prior to feeding—> Bell

d. ex : Pavlov’s dog and Watson’s fingertip

e. conditional as meaning conditional upon learning or dependent upon conditions. The conditional stimulus is what cues the conditional response.

3. Paradigm
a. Conditioned Reflex 조건 반사 (CS->CR)
-depends on the unique conditions of learning environment

1. Conditioned Stimulus (the bell sound)
2. Conditioned Response (salivation)

b. Unconditioned Reflex 무조건 반사 (US->UR)
-the original, unlearned reflex

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (food placed in mouth)

2. Unconditioned Response (salivation)

c. difference

– CR and UCR occur at a different strength

4. Variations of stimuli and responses

a. forward conditioning :

– delay conditioning 지연 조건형성

– trace conditioning 흔적 조건형성

b. simultaneous conditiong 동시 조건형성

c. backeard conditiong 후향 조건 형성

d. temporal conditiong – the background, or context, can serve as the CS

e. unpaired conditiong – to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization 민감화

f. cs-alone extinction

g. 학습 효과 : DC > SC or TC > BC

5. This established the Science of learning (Observable!)

6. Terms and Concepts

a. Extinction – 소거 ( vs 망각)
-conditioned reflex established
-presentation of conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus
-eventual “unlearning of association” (but not really!
see spontaneous recovery)

b. Spontaneous Recovery (Thomas Landauer)
1. a single re-presentation of UCS & CS pairing results in full conditioned reflex
2. after time elapses, some recovery takes place without any pairing

c. Generalization (overgeneralization) – Albert
-stimuli similar to CS will elicit the CR
-more similar = greater response or greater likelihood of response
-colors, smells, tones

d. Discrimination Training (동물이나 유아의 감각/인지능력 판별)

-notices differences between situations rather than similarities

-can train to discriminate between two similar stimuli
-always pair 1000Hz tone with food
-always present 1200Hz tone without food

-release from habituation & experimental neurosis (by excessively fine discriminations)

e. 2차 조건 형성 (second/high-order conditioning) Rescola

-CS1+US->UCR, CS1 -> CR, CS1+CS2->CR1 then CS2->CR2

-간접경험

f. 역 조건 형성 (encounter-conditioning) – 공포 CS + 긍정적 CS -> 공포 CS 소거

g. Robert A. Rescorla (1988 American Psychologist article)

-Classical conditioning “is intimately involved in the control of central psychological processes, such as emotions and motivation.”

-Classical conditioning is now known to be involved with the immune system, sexual anticipation, tolerance to addictive drugs, and much more.

7. Contiguity 근접성과 Contingency 수반성
a. Rescola의 실험
b. Garcia의 맛-혐오 실험 : 근접하지 않아도 학습이 수행된다.
c. Kamin의 blocking 차폐 실험 cf: overshadowing

C. Operant Conditioning : 의지(의식적인) 반응 조건화

0. contrasts between classical and operant conditioning

-Memory for classically conditioned responses occurs throughout the nervous system at the neural level

-Memory for patterns of operant responses (i.e. complex non-instinctive behavior) typically requires the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for event memory.

-An operant is defined by its effect.

-Operant and classical conditioning effects are mingled in course of normal animal behavior.

1. Operant responses
-operate on environment to produce some change
-any behavioral response that has an effect on the environment

2. Law of Effect
a. Thorndike (1898) - 기능주의
b. cat learned to respond in appropriate manner to get food

[diagram] puzzle box

c. Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely
to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect
become less likely to occur again in that situation

d. 한 행동의 강도(빈도, 지속기간 등)는 과거에 그 행동이 초래했던 결과에 좌우된다

e. trial and error learning

3. Pavlov versus Thorndike
a. Pavlov only interested in environmental events which precede the response
-stimulus leads to response
-Push button X and get response Y

b. Thorndike interested in the environmental events which occur after the response (a consequence of the response)
-response leads to stimulus

4. Burrhus Fredric Skinner
-major proponent of behaviorism over past 50 years
-dev
eloped the Skinner Box

[diagram]

-made immediate multiple responses possible
-made quantification of responses easy
-developed the terminology of operant conditioning

-reinforcer, rather than “satisfaction” or “reward”
definition: a stimulus that increases the frequency of a response

5. General Applications
-this is how we learn many skills, cause-and-effect relationships

6. Shaping 행동 조성/ Backward chaining 행동 연쇄화
-reinforce successively closer approximations to the desired response
Exercise: Hot/Cold to condition a volunteer

7. Reinforcement Schedules

[diagram]

a. Fixed ratio
-response must be emitted a certain fixed number of times before a reinforcer occurs

-e.g., every 5th response reinforced
-e.g., selling on commission with quotas putting money in a pop machine FR-1

b. Variable ratio
-response must be emitted a certain average number of times before a reinforcer occurs

-e.g., average every 5th response, but vary ratio
-e.g., slot machines at casinos

c. Fixed interval
-fixed period of time must elapse after each reinforced response before another reinforcement can be obtained

-e.g., reinforced for first response after every 10 seconds
-e.g., getting paid every 2 weeks

d. Variable interval
-average period of time must elapse after each reinforced response before another reinforcement can be obtained

-e.g., reinforced for first response on the average after every 10 seconds, but vary interval
-e.g., rarely occur in a natural setting call about a job application, line is busy, keep calling at regular intervals

e. continuous reinforcement vs. partial reinforcement

f. Effects of different types of simple schedules

– Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules.

– Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules.

– The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction.

– Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules

8. Extinction
-the decline in response rate that results when the operant response is no longer followed by a reinforcer
-different reinforcement schedules have different rates of extinction

9. Stimulus Control of Operant Behavior
a. Importance of context
b. Discrimination (e.g., police car and speeding)
c. Discriminant stimulus
-one which signals the availability of a reinforcer or punisher

10. Chaining and Secondary Reinforcement
a. Primary reinforcers

-based on some biological drive or need, such as the need for food, water, attention, or a comfortable temperature

-Primary reinforcers are unlearned. (innately reinforcing)
b. Chain of reinforcers

-Secondary reinforcers are learned or symbolic reinforcers.

-training rat in college
-grades—>education—>better job—>money—>food

11. Consequences

-change the future frequency of a response

a. Reinforcer – leads to increased frequency of response

1. Positive – introduce a favorable stimulus (추가할수록 강화)
e.g., water, money, good grade를 추가 할수있다는 믿음에 행동이 강화되기
2. Negative – remove an unfavorable stimulus (제거할수록 강화) – escape training
e.g., pebble in shoe, adjust walk, brother hitting you, scream for mom을 제거할수있다는 믿음에 행동이 강화되기

b. Punisher – leads to decreased frequency of response

1. Positive – introduce an unfavorable stimulus, a stimulus is added
e.g., shock, hit, scare
2. Negative – remove a favorable stimulus ; Response Cost
e.g., prison, fines, groundings

12. Premack principle
-high-probability behaviors (those performed frequently under conditions of free choice) can be used to reinforce low-probability behaviors.
-As a rule, preferred behaviors can be used to reinforce unpreferred behaviors.
-숙제(선호도 낮은)하면 TV볼수(선호도 높은)있게해 줄께.

E. Cognitive Learning 인지 학습 (보충)
1. Cognitive Map 인지도 (Tolman)
2. Insight Learning 통찰학습 (Wolfgang Köhler)
3. Observational Learning 관찰학습 (Bandura)
– attention(주의) – retention(파지) – reproduction(재생) – motivation(동기)

07년 8월 08일 -

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